Published Articles

Beer: The Colonial Beverage of Choice - January 2002

This is the first in a series of articles focusing on the beverages consumed in eighteenth-century Virginia. Beer was probably the most popular drink of the time, so we will begin with it.

A Dip the in the Colonial Punch Bowl - February 2002

“When wine inflames, punch does but cheer Nor fuddles like the muddy beer But like the fountain runs off clear”

“Different Scize and pattrons:” Eighteenth-century Wine and Glassware - March 2002

“Then wine, I say! I’ll drink to madness! Wine, my girl, to cure my sadness! And tell me no more, there’s folly in drinking, Can anything equal the folly of thinking!” 18th-century drinking song

John Carlyle’s Bloomery - April 2002

If you’ve ever mentioned that John Carlyle owned portion of a bloomery on your tour, you may have received some puzzled looks. In the eighteenth century, a bloomery was a small furnace for making iron blooms. A bloom, derived from the old Germanic word for flower, was a pasty lump of raw, unhammered iron. While bloomeries were more common in the colonies, they were not able to produce the most pure iron. Blast furnaces were larger and able to produce a more desirable molten iron. In fact, there were a number of blast furnaces in Virginia opened by Governor Spotswood, in an attempt to diversify the primarily agricultural economy in the early eighteenth century.

“The Grandest Congress Ever Known…” - May 2002

In schoolbook memories of American Indian wars, the name of Edward Braddock comes to mind along with that of Custer. The story of Braddock’s march against Fort Duquesne in 1755, and his loss of an army in a forest battle with the French and Indians is a familiar one.

Buckets, Barrels, and Rundlets: The Craf t of a Cooper - July 2002

When you think about the most important items invented in history, a barrel is not the first thing that usually comes to mind. Some would argue, though, that the barrel was one of the most important inventions in civilizing mankind. The creation of the barrel and other wooden containers revolutionized the way that large amounts of food and liquid were stored and transported. The cooper was at the center of this transformation. Coopering as a craft has been around for thousands of years. Egyptian tomb paintings of 2,000 B.C. show staved buckets. Barrels are mentioned in the Bible. Pliny records that casks were used to contain wine in Gaul. It is not clear when the first barrel, whose appearance we would recognize, was created. But by medieval times, these barrels had become vitally important storage containers and have remained so up until the present.

Variola: A Notable Foe - August 2002

Smallpox is not a subject most people yearn to read about, but it is in the news in more depth and with increasing frequency every week. It is interesting to note that smallpox was a subject on the minds of the American Revolutionary soldiers, as well as our present day homeland defenders. Elizabeth A. Fenn, in her new book Pox Americana, The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82, does a wonderful job in describing this foe and how it affected the Revolutionary War.

Convict Servants: A Necessary Danger - September 2002

Alexandria, September 7, 1767. RUN AWAY from subscriber’s schooner flat, lying at Nomony, on Sunday the 23d of August last, a convict servant named Dennis Shields. About 16 years of age, about 4 feet 3 or 4 inches high, by trade a chimney sweeper, but has been at sea to the East Indies, and pretends to be a seaman; he is an Irishman, is much addicted to lying, and loves drink…John Carlyle

“He had it on when he went away…”: Clothing in Eighteenth-Century Runaway Ads - October 2002

There are a variety of sources historians can use to examine the types of clothing worn by wealthy 18th-century people in the Chesapeake. Ranging from portraits, inventories, period prints, and merchant records to surviving samples of clothing, it is not difficult to get a handle on the types of garments worn by this visible and highly documented section of colonial society. There are fewer sources that can be used to discover what the other portions of society were wearing, such as indentured servants, convict servants and slaves. Few period prints include these individuals and there are almost no surviving pieces of clothing. The runaway ads in local newspapers provide us with a very descriptive glimpse into what indentured servants, convict servants and slaves were wearing and carrying with them when they went away.

The Great Awakening in Virginia - November 2002

This is the first in a two part series looking at the Presbyterian Church in Virginia and the life of John Carlyle. Religion played a major role in the lives of Virginians in the eighteenth century and the Anglican Church was at the center as a dominant social and political force. Because John Carlyle was a Presbyterian, religion becomes an interesting facet of his life. In order to fully understand this issue, it is important to look at the evangelical religious movement taking place in the eighteenth century referred to as the Great Awakening.

John Carlyle: The Presbyterian - December 2002

After realizing the impact that religion had on everyday colonial Virginia, it makes you wonder how all the religious fervor that was occurring during the Great Awakening would have impacted the Carlyle household. With all of the information we have about Carlyle’s public and personal life, there are unfortunately only a few clues that reveal the role religion played in John’s life. Specifically, how being Presbyterian affected his daily activities.